Nativa, Sinop, v. 11, n. 2, p. 178-184, 2023.
Pesquisas Agrárias e Ambientais
DOI: https://doi.org/10.31413/nativa.v11i2.15801
ISSN: 2318-7670
The effect of seasonal temperatures on the levels of air pollutants
in rural and urban areas in Iraq
Ahmed Ibrahim ALALLAWI1* , Attalah Maeedi HAMEED-AMEEN2,
Khalf Ibraheem Khalf AL-JUBOURI3
1Al-Shirqat Education Department, Directorate General of Salah-Alddin Education, Salah-Alddin, Iraq.
2Kirkuk Education Department, Directorate General of Education Kirkuk, Kirkuk, Iraq.
3Examination Department, Directorate General of Education Kirkuk, Kirkuk, Iraq.
*E-mail: ahmed.i.abdullah@tu.edu.iq
Submission: 06/17/2023; Accepted on 07/03/2023; Published on 07/03/2023.
ABSTRACT: Iraq is one of the regions most affected by climate change around the world. These
multidimensional effects of climate and pollution must be taken into consideration when estimating both
climate and air pollution-related impacts, in order to develop appropriate health policies and measures to
address both current and future climate and pollution challenges. The study was conducted in the Iraqi
governorate of Salah al-Din, during the fall, winter and spring seasons of the year 2021-2022, with the aim of
evaluating the level of pollutants in the atmospheric air for three regions: Abotuama rural area, Baiji oil refinery
and the city of Tikrit. The concentrations of each of the toxic gases were measured: SO2, NO, NO2, HCL, HF,
TVOC, CO2 and CO, as well as temperatures. Significant differences were found between the study locations
and seasons for all the variables that were tested, as Baiji refinery recorded the highest concentrations of SO2,
NO, NO2, HCL, FH and TVOC at 3.5 ppm, 10.78 ppm, 7.475 ppm, 13.1 ppm, 0.8 mg m-3 and 15.25 ppm,
respectively. The site of Tikrit recorded the highest concentrations of CO2 and CO, which were 1016 ppm and
29.85 mg m-3, respectively. While the spring season recorded the highest concentrations of SO2, HCL, TVOC
and CO compounds, followed by the winter season of NO2, FH and TVOC compounds, the temperature rates
were identical in the three study sites and during the fall, winter and spring seasons, reaching 30.25, 12.5 and
31 ˚C during the three seasons, respectively. The results of analyzing the relationship between temperature and
pollutant concentrations showed that SO2, NO, HCl, and CO increase in hot seasons, while NO2, HF, TVOC,
and CO2 pollutant concentrations increase during cold seasons.
Keywords: air pollution; CO compounds; air temperature.
Efeito das temperaturas sazonais nos níveis de poluentes atmosféricos em
áreas rural e urbana, no Iraque
RESUMO: O Iraque é uma das regiões mais afetadas pelas mudanças climáticas em todo o mundo. Os efeitos
multidimensionais do clima e da poluição devem ser levados em consideração ao estimar os impactos climáticos
e suas relações com a poluição do ar, a fim de desenvolver políticas e medidas de saúde apropriadas para
enfrentar os desafios atuais e futuros do clima e da poluição. O estudo foi realizado na província iraquiana de
Salah al-Din, durante as estações de outono, inverno e primavera do ano 2021-2022. Objetivou-se avaliar o
nível de poluentes no ar atmosférico de três regiões: área rural de Abotuama, a refinaria de petróleo de Baiji e
a cidade de Tikrit. Foram avaliadas as concentrações dos seguintes gases tóxicos: SO2, NO, NO2, HCL, HF,
TVOC, CO2 e CO, em conjunto com as temperaturas do ar. Foram encontradas diferenças significativas entre
os locais de estudo e as estações para todas as variáveis testadas, pois a refinaria de Baiji registrou as maiores
concentrações de SO2, NO, NO2, HCL, FH e TVOC, equivalentes a 3,5 ppm, 10,78 ppm, 7,475 ppm, 13,1
ppm, 0,8 mg m-3 e 15,25 ppm, respectivamente. A cidade de Tikrit registrou as maiores concentrações de CO2
e CO, sendo de 1016 ppm e 29,85 mg m-3, respectivamente. Enquanto, que na estação da primavera foram
registradas as maiores concentrações dos compostos SO2, HCL, TVOC e CO, seguida pela estação do inverno
dos compostos NO2, FH e TVOC. As taxas de temperature do ar foram idênticas nos três locais de estudo e
durante as estações de outono, inverno e primavera, atingindo 30,25, 12,5 e 31,0 ˚C durante as três estações,
respectivamente. Os resultados da análise da relação entre a temperatura do ar e as concentrações de poluentes
mostraram que SO2, NO, HCl e CO aumentam nas estações quentes, enquanto as concentrações dos poluentes
NO2, HF, TVOC e CO2 aumentam nas estações frias.
Palavras-chave: poluição do ar; compostos de CO; temperatura do ar.
1. INTRODUCTION
The continuous increase in emissions of carbon dioxide
and other anthropogenic greenhouse gases is significantly
changing the climate at the global and regional levels. As in
other parts of the world, Iraq has seen a gradual rise in
warming and a decrease in average precipitation. Climate
Alallawi et al.
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179
scenarios for the next century predict that warming will be
associated with more frequent, intense and prolonged heat
waves (RODRIGUEZ et al., 2019).
Climate change is likely to affect air pollution levels in
urban areas, because the generation and spread of air
pollutants, such as ozone and particulate matter, depend in
part on local patterns of temperature, wind, solar radiation
and precipitation. Air quality is expected to worsen in some
areas, due to the increased frequency of forest fires that
release gaseous and particulate pollutants into the
atmosphere. In addition, changes in wind patterns and
desertification will modify the long-range transport of
pollutants from human activities and biomass burning
(BHUYAN et al., 2022).
Climate change and air pollution are intrinsically linked,
since greenhouse gases and air pollutants originate from the
same source, which is the combustion of fossil fuels (Aziz et
al., 2022). Combustion processes emit greenhouse gases such
as carbon dioxide (CO2), nitrous oxide (N2O) and methane
(CH4), and air pollutants such as particulate matter (PM),
carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen dioxide (NO2) and sulfur
dioxide (SO2) (ANENBERG et al., 2020). Climate change
and current and future air pollution trends, locally and
globally, balance in determining air quality: on the one hand,
the decrease in anthropogenic emissions, resulting from the
implementation of emissions control legislation adopted in
each country and improvements in the energy sector; On the
other hand, the effects of climate change lead in most cases
to increased levels of pollution (AZIZ et al., 2022).
Climatic factors affect particle concentrations to different
degrees depending on the chemical components of the
particles, on the one hand, higher temperatures lead to an
increase in sulfate dust due to faster oxidation of sulfur
dioxide, and on the other hand, they lead to a decrease in
particle nitrate concentrations due to an increase in gas phase
transition (NGUYEN et al., 2019). However, the nitrate
burden is expected to increase under climate change along
with all other aerosols, except sulfate (LIAO et al., 2021).
Another important link between climate and air quality is
that the primary products of combustion processes (such as
carbon monoxide, non-methane volatile organic compounds,
nitrogen oxides, sulfur dioxide, black carbon and organic
carbon dust) and some secondary pollutants have the
potential to increase global warming directly or indirectly.
Carbon monoxide, non-methane volatile organic
compounds, and nitrogen oxides cause a decrease in the
oxidizing potential of the atmosphere, which increases the
lifetime of methane, which is one of the most important
warming factors. Instead, nitrate particles, as well as aerosols
of organic carbon, have a cooling effect on the climate. SO2
also partially converts into sulfur particles with quenching
potential and partially reacts with black carbon, which has a
strong heating effect (GAO et al., 2018).
The current study aims to investigate the relationship
between average temperatures and concentrations of
atmospheric air pollutants using some statistical methods in
three different regions within the Iraqi province of Salah al-
Din.
2. MATERIAL AND METHODS
2.1. Modeling site and study period
The study included the selection of three areas for
collecting air samples and testing the percentage of
pollutants, namely: the first area; Abotuama area, north of
Tikrit city (controlled rural area), the second area; Baiji Oil
refinery, north of Tikrit city, third area; Tikrit city is the center
of Salah ad-Din Governorate in the north of the Republic of
Iraq. Two points were identified within each chosen site for
collecting air samples, and the study was extended for the
period from October 2021 to April 2022.
2.2. Air sampling method
Samples were collected and atmospheric air pollutants
were quantified at all selected sites using environmental
monitoring equipment according to the method of GrayWolf
Sensing Solutions (ABDUL-WAHAB, 2018), which is a fully
integrated system for simultaneous measurements of
atmospheric parameters, toxic gases, and air velocity. The
WolfPackModular was used. The Area Monitor, integrated
with its own probes, WolfSense PC package and Advanced
Report Generator (ARG) were used to load the calculated
data, and the studied atmospheric air pollutants were
estimated for an average time of 15 minutes.
The studied atmospheric air pollutants: the concentrations of
the following toxic gases were estimated: sulfur dioxide
(SO2), nitrogen oxide (NO), nitrite (NO2), hydrochloric acid
(HCL), hydrogen fluoride (HF), carbon dioxide (CO2) and
carbon monoxide (CO).
2.3. Statistical analysis
After collecting the data, it was sorted and arranged using
the Microsoft Office Excel program, then a comparison was
made between the averages of the studied pollutants within
the seasons and regions of the study according to the Duncan
Mutable Range method at a probability level (P ≤ 0.05) using
the Statistical analysis system (SAS) program. Then, the
graphs were drawn using Microsoft Office Excel according
to the method mentioned (AL-ZUBAIDY; AL-FALAHY,
2016).
Advanced statistical analyzes were also conducted to find
the Pearson correlation coefficient, simple linear regression
analysis, and the coefficient of determination to show the
effect of seasonal temperature rates on the concentrations of
the gases studied using the SPSS statistical analysis program
as mentioned in (AL-ZUBAIDY; ALJIBOURI, 2022).
3. RESULTS
3.1. Levels of atmospheric air pollutants within the study
locations and seasons
The gaseous pollutants detected during the current study
were SO2, NO, NO2, HCL, HF, TVOC, CO2 and CO. The
results indicated that there is a spatial and temporal variation
in the recorded concentrations of all the monitored gaseous
pollutants.
The levels of atmospheric air pollutants that were
measured within the study locations and seasons shown in
Figure (1a-i) showed that there were significant differences
among them for all the variables studied, as it was noted with
regard to the concentration of SO2 (Figure 1a) that the
highest recorded value was 3.5 ppm at the Baiji refinery site.
During the spring season, while the lowest concentration
was 0.05 ppm at the site of Abotuama during the winter
season, and for the concentration of NO (Figure 1b), the
values ranged between 10.78 and 0.75 ppm during the
autumn season at the site of the Beiji refinery and Abotuama,
respectively, and for the concentrations of NO2 (Figure 1c)
The effect of seasonal temperatures on the levels of air pollutants in rural and urban areas in Iraq
Nativa, Sinop, v. 11, n. 2, p. 178-184, 2023.
180
The highest value was recorded at 7.475 ppm at the Baiji
refinery site during the winter season, while the lowest value
was 0.525 ppm at the Abotuama site during the autumn
season. For the concentration of hydrochloric acid HCL
(Figure 1d), the highest value was significantly 13.1 ppm at
the Baiji refinery site during the fall and spring seasons, while
the lowest value was 0.53 ppm at the Abotuama site during
the winter season.
The highest concentration of hydrogen fluoride (FH) was
recorded at 0.8 mg/m3 at the Baiji refinery site during the
winter, while the lowest concentration was 0.025 mg/m3 at
the Abotuama site during the fall (Figure 1e). The
concentrations of Total Volatile Organic Compounds
(TVOC) (Figure 1f) ranged between 15.25 ppm at the Baiji
refinery site during the winter and spring seasons, and 0.35
ppm at the Abotuama site during the fall season. For carbon
dioxide (CO2) (Figure 1g), the highest concentration was
1016 ppm in the Tikrit site during the winter season, while
the lowest concentration was 205 ppm in the Abotuama site
during the autumn season. As for carbon monoxide (CO)
(Figure 1h), the highest concentration was recorded at 29.85
mg/m3 in the Tikrit site during the spring season, while the
lowest concentration was 1.2 mg/m3 in the Abotuama site
during the spring. The average temperatures were identical in
the three study sites and during the fall, winter and spring
seasons, as they were 30.25, 12.5 and 31 ˚C during the three
seasons, respectively (Figure 1i).
a
b
c d
e
f
Figure 1. Average air pollutants and temperatures within the study locations and seasons. Means with the same letter are not significantly different.
Figura 1. Concentrações medias de poluentes atmosféricos e temperaturas nos locais de estudo e estações do ano. Médias com a mesma letra
não são significativamente diferentes.
Alallawi et al.
Nativa, Sinop, v. 11, n. 2, p. 178-184, 2023.
181
g h
i
Continuation of Figure 1. Average air pollutants and temperatures within the study locations and seasons. Means with the same letter are not
significantly different.
Continuação da Figura 1. Concentrações medias de poluentes atmosféricos e temperaturas nos locais de estudo e estações do ano. Médias
com a mesma letra não são significativamente diferentes.
It is noted from the results that the concentrations of
atmospheric air pollutants increased in the areas of the Baiji
refinery and the city of Tikrit, compared to the rural
Abotuama area, which is far from pollution sources. means
of heating and heavy traffic (especially at the height of the
cold season when citizens and students rely more on means
of transportation) in the city of Tikrit, as the gases emitted
from these and other sources accumulate in the nearby
atmosphere, and this leads to an increase in gas
concentrations, and it is noted that all gaseous pollutants are
the combustion products that were discovered in the studied
areas, their sources may include the incineration furnaces of
oil installations, electric power stations and other factories.
We note when comparing pollutant rates within the
studied sites and seasons with the standards of some
international environmental organizations (Table 1), we find
that the results we obtained were high for sulfur dioxide and
nitrogen oxides, while they were within the safe limits for
hydrochloric acid, hydrogen fluoride, TVOC, carbon
monoxide and carbon dioxide.
Table 1. Global determinants of some atmospheric air pollutants (TRNKA, 2020).
Tabela 1. Determinantes globais de alguns poluentes atmosféricos (TRNKA, 2020).
Examinations
Organizations
SO
2
(ppm)
NO
x
(ppm)
HCL
(ppm)
HF
(mg/m3)
TVOC
(ppm)
CO
2
(ppm)
CO
(mg/m3)
WHO
-
0.015
-
0.100
-
1.1 300
5000
-
30000
9
-
35
EPA
0.03
-
0.5
0.53
-
-
50 10000
9
-
35
MoE
0.018
-
0.1
0.04
-
0.05
18
-
-
-
10
-
35
4. DISCUSSION
The present results are consistent with those of Abass et
al. (2016) who studied the concentration of pollutants
(VOCs, SO2, H2S, NO2) and evaluated the impact of fuel
burning in urban areas in the Nahrawan suburb – of Baghdad
city, and found that the value of these gases was changed
from one location to another according to the quantity and
quality of fuel used and wind direction, and concluded the
concentrations of all the gases that were examined in the
study area exceeded the standards of the World Health
Organization and national standards, while the cause of air
pollution in urban areas was attributed to human activities
such as movement behavior, waste management, industrial
development, production and use of energy (for treatment,
heating and cooking), and the activities that result in it.
Toamma; Al-Mosuwi (2022) also found, through researching
the concentration of atmospheric air pollutants in three
regions of Basra Governorate, that hydrocarbon
concentrations increased several times more than the
national determinants of safe ambient air quality during the
research period of 0.24 ppm per 3 hours. He recommended
obligating the oil companies operating in the governorate
with legislation and laws to reduce the dangerous
environmental effects on the health of citizens, as it is the
main cause of air pollution and its deterioration in the
governorate, and to address the problem of lack of electric
The effect of seasonal temperatures on the levels of air pollutants in rural and urban areas in Iraq
Nativa, Sinop, v. 11, n. 2, p. 178-184, 2023.
182
power and develop the necessary solutions to reduce the
effects of the huge increase in the number of vehicles, as the
exhaust gases that consists of carbon dioxide and water vapor
usually accompanied by a small amount of some organic
molecules that have not been completely oxidized, in
addition to a small amount of toxic carbon monoxide and
some nitrogen oxides and formaldehyde gas, and it also
contains sulfur dioxide gas found in petroleum during its
combustion. Therefore, vehicles contribute a great role in air
pollution, especially within Iraqi cities in general, where it was
found that the amount of air needed to burn (1 kg) of fuel
equals (15 kg) in terms of weight, but in terms of volume, the
combustion of one liter of fuel requires 9 tons of air, and the
combustion process is ideal if it leads to complete
combustion of the fuel, which will produce the two
substances (CO2 and H2O). In most cases, combustion is
incomplete, which leads to air pollution from the emission of
toxic components from vehicle exhausts.
4.1 Analysis of the relationship between concentrations
of atmospheric air pollutants and seasonal temperatures
All of the statistical analyzes (correlation coefficient,
regression coefficient, and coefficient of determination) were
conducted as an average for the three study sites because of
the similarity of seasonal temperatures during the study
period. The results of Table (2) showed that the analysis of
Pearson’s correlation coefficient (R) for the concentrations
of atmospheric air pollutants with seasonal temperatures
showed variations in different types of pollutants studied,
and it was negative (inverse) highly significant (at a
probability level of 1%) for HF with temperature. The value
of the correlation coefficient was 0.574. There were positive
(direct) and low significant correlations (at a probability level
of 5%) for nitrogen monoxide NO and hydrochloric acid
HCL with values of 0.409 and 0.314, respectively. While there
were negative and low significant correlations of nitrogen
dioxide NO2 and carbon dioxide CO2 with seasonal
temperature levels with values of -0.355 and -0.418
respectively, the values of the rest of the correlation
coefficients for atmospheric air pollutants with temperatures
did not reach the statistical significance limits.
The results of Table (2) showed that the values of the
regression coefficients β for the effect of temperature levels
on atmospheric air pollutants were significant at the
concentration of SO2, TVOC and CO, as the values of the
regression coefficients for these variables indicate that each
degree of temperature increase lead to increases the
concentration of SO2 and CO by an amount 1.4 ppm and
0.10 mg/m3 for each of them, respectively, while an increase
in temperature by one degree leads to a decrease in TVOC
concentration by -0.17 ppm, and the rest of the regression
coefficients did not reach the limits of statistical significance,
and the effect of temperature was direct on NO and HCL
concentrations While it had the opposite effect on the
concentrations of NO2, HF, and CO2.
The values of the determination coefficient (R2) shown in
Table (2) also showed that the contributing effects of
seasonal temperatures to the concentrations of the studied
atmospheric air pollutants were all significant except for the
concentration of SO2 and CO gases for which the calculated
F values were less than the tabular ones. The percentages of
the contributing effects of temperature ranged between 1%
in the concentration of total volatile organic compounds
TVOC and 33% in the concentration of hydrogen fluoride
gas HF.
Table 2. Pearson correlation, regression, and determination coefficients between seasonal temperature levels and concentrations of
atmospheric air pollutants.
Tabela 2. Correlação de Pearson, regressão e coeficientes de determinação entre níveis sazonais de temperatura e concentrações de poluentes
atmosféricos.
Depen. variable
Indepen. variables
Temperature
R β
T R2 F
β0 β1 Calculated Tabulated Calculated Tabulated
SO2 (ppm) 0.198 22.45 1.4* 0.61 0.53 0.04 0.28 0.61
NO (ppm) 0.409* 19.30 0.93 0.27 1.19 0.17* 1.4 0.27
NO2 (ppm) -0.355* 28.67 -1.20 0.35 1.004 0.13* 1.008 0.35
HCL (ppm) 0.314* 21.01 0.59 0.41 0.87 0.10* 0.76 0.41
HF (mg/m3) -0.574** 29.43 -20.76 0.11 1.85 0.33* 3.43 0.11
TVOC (ppm) -0.109 25.60 -0.17* 0.78 0.29 0.01* 3.44 0.11
CO2 (ppm) -0.418* 33.12 -0.02 0.26 1.22 0.18* 1.48 0.26
CO (mg/m3) 0.124 23.05 0.10* 0.75 0.33 0.02 0.11 0.75
** and * are significant at the 1 and 5% probability level, respectively.
** e * são significativos ao nível de probabilidade de 1 e 5%, respectivamente.
As climate change may alter the health effects of air
pollution, there is increasing concern about the effects of
temperature changes on the impact of pollutants on mortality
(LI et al., 2017). To date, little is known about the potential
interaction between air pollution and air temperature.
Researchers have previously investigated the role of the
season as a modifier of air pollution (ZHAO et al., 2019). The
season is clearly related to temperature, and this highlights
the need for a comprehensive investigation of the interaction
between air pollution and temperature (FENG et al., 2021).
The effects of temperature modulation on PM10, SO2, and
O3 pollutant concentrations have been indicated (LIU et al.,
2017). The results of this study are consistent with those of
many previous studies, as some studies reported that the
effects of NO2 air pollutants were more pronounced in the
cold season than in the warm season (QIU et al., 2015). NO2
air pollution may have immediate effects on some specific
disease outcomes, such as myocardial infarction
(ARGACHA et al., 2016).
DUAN et al. (2019) reported that severe climatic
conditions often in the cold season (for example,
thunderstorms and heavy rain) can reduce the concentration
of pollutants, while NO2 pollution peaks during winter, and
the effect of temperature is stronger below the cold
Alallawi et al.
Nativa, Sinop, v. 11, n. 2, p. 178-184, 2023.
183
threshold, the higher relative effects during the cold season
may be due to synergistic effects between air pollution and
temperature.
The results of the study of Mohammadi et al. (2019)
showed that the levels of NO2, SO2, PM10 and PM2.5 in
atmospheric air increased when the temperature increased.
Conversely, Trinh et al. (2019) confirmed in their study in
Mexico over the period 2003-2007 that high variability in
temperature inversion intensity occurred from November to
May, and in the rainy months from December to March,
there were lower average temperatures. High concentrations
of PM10, NO2, NOx, CO and SO2 prolong the period of
temperature inversion and low humidity.
5. CONCLUSIONS
We conclude from the foregoing that there is a significant
effect of the oil industry in the Baiji refinery and the
population density of Tikrit city in raising the concentrations
of gases polluting the air, especially during the rainy winter
months, compared to the rural area (Abotuama) in which the
concentrations of toxic gases were at low levels. We also
conclude that the concentrations of atmospheric air
pollutants SO2, NO, HCL, and CO increase in the warm and
hot seasons, while the concentrations of NO2, HF, TVOC,
and CO2 pollutants increase during the cold seasons. A series
of worldwide epidemiological and observational studies have
found independent negative effects of air pollution and air
temperature on human health.
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Author Contributions: A.I.A. - Methodology, Research, and
Administration; A.M.H.-A. - Conceptualization, Methodology,
Research, Validation, Writing and proofreading; K.I.K.A.-J.:
Methodology, Validation, Writing draft. All authors read and agreed
to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: Not applicable.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Raw and analyzed data can be
obtained by request to the corresponding Author by e-mail.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare that there is no conflict
of interest regarding the publication of this paper.