Nativa, Sinop, v. 11, n. 2, p. 185-191, 2023.
Pesquisas Agrárias e Ambientais
DOI: https://doi.org/10.31413/nativa.v11i2.15742
ISSN: 2318-7670
Possible human health risks of nitrates in drinking water: a case study of
groundwater in Wana District, northern Iraq
Amenah Ibrahim Ahmed AL-HUSSEIN1, Abdulazeez Younis Talea AL-SAFFAWI2* ,
Yusra Majeed Shihab AL-SHAKER1
1 Department of Environmental Sciences, College of Environmental Sciences and Technology, University of Mosul, Mosul, Iraq.
2 Department of Biology, College of Education for Pure Science, University of Mosul, Mosul, Iraq.
*E-mail: alsaffawia2025@uomosul.edu.iq
Submission: 06/13/2023; Accepted on 06/30/2023; Published on 07/04/2023.
ABSTRACT: The purpose of this research is to determine how dangerous nitrates (HHRNO3) in the drinking
water of the Wana district northeast of Mosul are to human health. Where 100 water samples were taken from
10 wells across the region, between July 2022 and January 2023, to determine the average nitrate ion
concentration, the average chronic nitrate ion intake, and the risk quotient (QHI) for people of varying ages.
According to the study's findings, nitrate concentrations ranged from (3.0 to 15) ppm at a rate that did not
exceed (12.3 ± 0.05) ppm, which is within limits recommended by the World Health Organization, which was
reflected in the NPI values to range between (-0.27 to 0.23) to classify the studied water is from the category
of clean water to light polluted with nitrates. As for the effects of nitrates' chronic daily intake (CDI) and risk
factor (QHI), they fluctuated between (0.081 to 0.876) mg kg-1 daily, and (0.548 to 0.050) successively, the
highest values were in infants, followed by children aged (6 to 11) years, then elderly females, with values (0.554
and 0.474) mg kg-1 daily and (0.346 and 0.296), consecutively. While the age group (16 to 18) years was the least
affected by the dangers of nitrates, the chronic daily intake values and the risk quotient ranged between (0.081
to 0.330) mg kg-1 daily, and (0.050 to 0.206). Thus, the studied water is considered safe for drinking because it
is within the levels recommended by the US. Environmental Protection Agency (QHI=1.0).
Keywords: nitrate; NPI; HHRNO3.
Possíveis riscos à saúde humana por nitratos na água potável: um estudo de
caso de água subterrânea no Distrito de Wana, Norte do Iraque
RESUMO: O objetivo desta pesquisa foi determinar a periculosidade para a sáude humana associado aos
nitratos (HHRNO3) na água potável do distrito de Wana, a nordeste de Mosul. Foram coletadas 100 amostras
de água, de 10 poços em toda a região, entre julho de 2022 e janeiro de 2023, para determinar a concentração
média de íons de nitrato, a ingestão crônica média de íons de nitrato e o quociente de risco (QHI) para pessoas
de várias idades. De acordo com os resultados do estudo, as concentrações de nitrato variaram de 3,0 a 15 ppm,
a uma taxa que não ultrapassou 12,3±0,05 ppm, sendo considerado dentro dos limites recomendados pela
Organização Mundial da Saúde. Isso refletiu nos valores do NPI entre -0,27 a 0,23, permitindo classificar a água
estudada como da categoria de água limpa para poluição com nitratos. Quanto aos efeitos da ingestão diária
crônica de nitratos (CDI) e fator de risco (QHI), esses indices oscilaram de 0,081 a 0,876 mg kg-1 diariamente,
e de 0,548 a 0,050, respectivamente. Os maiores valores foram obtidos em lactentes, seguidos por crianças com
idade de 6 a 11 anos (0,554 e 0,474 mg kg-1 diariamente) e idosos do sexo feminino (0,346 e 0,296)
consecutivamente. Enquanto a faixa etária (16 a 18) anos foi a menos afetada pelos perigos dos nitratos. Os
valores de ingestão diária crônica e o quociente de risco variaram de 0,081 a 0,330 mg kg-1 diariamente e de
0,050 a 0,206. Assim, a água estudada é considerada segura para consume, por estar dentro dos níveis
recomendados pelos EUA, com QHI=1,0.
Palavras-chave: nitrato; NPI; HHRNO3.
1. INTRODUCTION
Despite the damage caused by high levels of nitrates and
nitrites in drinking water, especially groundwater, and foods,
low concentrations have health benefits for humans, as
studies indicate that nitrate and nitrite ions found in
vegetables and drinking water have a beneficial influence on
human health because to the interactions they have with
biological processes. Nitrates are chemical molecules and the
byproducts of physiological processes that make nitrite,
which is subsequently converted to nitric oxide., which plays
an effective role in preventing cardiovascular diseases such as
stroke (ZUCKERBRAUN et. al., 2017; LI et. al., 2020; AL-
HAMDANY et. al., 2020; AL-GADI et. al., 2023).
This is due to its important role in regulating blood
pressure, such as the pulmonary artery's blood pressure, by
expanding the walls of blood vessels and increasing their
elasticity (ADIMALLAH; PEIGYUE, 2019; AL-SAFFAWI;
AWAD, 2020). However, high concentrations of nitrate and
Possible human health risks of nitrates in drinking water: a case study of groundwater in Wana District
Nativa, Sinop, v. 11, n. 2, p. 185-191, 2023.
186
nitrite ions above the limits allowed by (WHO, 2017) does
significant harm to the health of both humans and animals.
Nitrate compounds in the diet are broken down into
nitrite ions by anaerobic bacteria living under the tongue.
These nitrite ions then react with secondary amines or amides
in the stomach to form N-Nitroso compounds (NOC), the
most common of which are linked to serious diseases like
methemoglobinemia (Blue Baby Syndrome) caused by the
oxidation of ferrous in hemoglobin to the ferric form,
resulting in a reduction in the blood (BREDA et. al., 2019;
ABBASNIA et. al., 2019; AL-BHAR; AL-SAFFAWI, 2020;
AL-SAFFAWI; AWAD, 2021).
Figure 1. Blue Baybe syndrome: represented by the blueness of parts
of the body such as the lips, face and soles of the feet.
Figura 1. Síndrome Blue Baybe: representada pela coloração azulada
de partes do corpo como lábios, face e planta dos pés.
International studies have indicated the prevalence of
these health problems in many regions of the world,
including the study conducted in the United States of
America, which confirmed that the main cause of the Blue
Baby Syndrome in infants and even the elderly is the high
level of nitrates in drinking water that are greater than the
permissible levels (45 ppm); As these symptoms appeared in
80% of infants who were exposed to high levels of nitrates in
drinking water (AHMED et. al., 2019). It also increases the
risk of thyroid and endocrine disorders, and cancerous
diseases such as leukemia, mouth, colon and rectum, stomach
and prostate, etc. (TEMKIN et. al., 2019; JUNTAKUT et al,
2020; LIN et. al., 2023; MOTHFER; AL-SAFFAWI, 2023).
For pregnant women, some researchers have indicated
that exposure to high levels of nitrates through drinking
water is strongly associated with miscarriage, premature
births, low birth weights and birth defects in newborns (YU
et. al., 2020; SHERRIS et. al., 2021; COFFMAN et. al., 2021;
STAYNER et. al., 2022). Reports and studies also indicate
that many cases of recurrent miscarriage of pregnant women
in the US state of LaGrange, Indiana are because of the
widespread usage of nitrate-contaminated wells; excessive
nitrate exposure has been linked to an increased risk of birth
abnormalities and other adverse outcomes during pregnancy.
of the fetuses. It also increases the negative impact on the
health of pregnant women and the elderly who suffer from a
rare metabolic dehydrogenase deficiency (WHO, 2017).
These risks result from the formation of carcinogenic
and mutagenic N-nitroso compounds resulting from the
reaction of nitrite derived from the reduction of nitrates in
the body with amines and amides. Through experiments and
studies, about 300 N-nitroso compounds (NOCs) have been
diagnosed, and 85% of 209 nitrosamines and 92% of
nitrosamides have a carcinogenic effect (VERMEER et. al.,
1998).
By the grace of God on creatures, the presence of
ascorbic acid, polyphenols, etc., in high levels in vegetables
works to inhibit the formation of NOC compounds to
protect humans and animals from dangerous effects. As a
result of the importance of nitrate ions, the current study
came to assess the health risks of nitrates in the groundwater
of the Wana sub-district and its affiliated villages as one of
the very limited studies in Iraq.
2. MATERIAL AND METHODS
2.1. Description of the study area:
Ten wells were chosen at random from a range of depths
in the Wana sub-district (Deer Umm Tutha and Musharraf
Habeit villages) affiliated with the Takleef district in the
northeastern part of the city of Mosul, Nineveh Governorate.
Their locations were determined using the Global
Positioning System (GPS) of Google Earth, as shown in
Table 1 and Figure 2 to illustrate the latitude and longitude.
Table 1. Characteristics and specifications of the studied area and
wells.
Tabela 1. Características e especificações da área e poços estudados.
Wells
No
Coordinates Depth
(m) Uses
N
E
1
36
°
30.821
”
42
°
45
’
34.182
”
45
For drinking, bathing,
cooking, watering
livestock and poultry, etc.
2
36
°
0
7.585
”
42
°
46
’
0
8.757
”
100
3
36
°
51
’
50
.
938
”
42
°
4
7
’ 0
4
.
600
”
27
4
36
°
50.20
0
”
42
°
46
’
14.6
00
”
20
5
36
°
30
’
50.182
”
42
°
46
’
27.904
”
50
6
36
°
30
’
31.410
”
42
°
46
’
33.801
”
17
7
36
°
30
’
46.305
”
42
°
47
’
51.052
”
40
8
36
°
30
’
52.686
”
42
°
49
’
0
5.575
”
41
9
36
°
30
’
56.819
”
42
°
49
’
0
5.067
”
117
10
36
°
30
’
53.091
”
42
°
49
’
21.773
”
50
Figure 2. A satellite map of the location of the wells of the town of
Wana and its affiliated villages, showing the wells studied.
Figura 2. Mapa de satélite da localização dos poços da cidade de
Wana e suas aldeias afiliadas, mostrando os poços estudados.
2.2. Geology of the Study Area:
It is spread in the study area consisting of a flood plain
that exists in the form of a strip surrounding the Tigris River
and consists of sand, silt, and a little gravel. The area is also
characterized by the spread of the Al-Fatha formation
belonging to the (Middle Miocene) which is exposed in some
locations and contains gypsum CaSO4 H2O, anhydrite,
CaSO4, halite and calcareous salt rocks, clay, and silt, in
addition to the formation of Anjana (Upper Miocene)
consisting of evaporates and the succession of clay, sand and
Al-Hussein et al.
Nativa, Sinop, v. 11, n. 2, p. 185-191, 2023.
187
marl rocks whose impact is reflected on the groundwater
passing through them (AL-SAWAF, 1977; ALYAN, 2010).
2.3. Methodology:
Water samples were collected from ten wells scattered in
the study area randomly, starting from July (2022) until
January (2023), after operating the well water pump for
several minutes, using clean polyethylene bottles, then placed
in a refrigerated box and away from light until reaching
Environment and pollution laboratory of the College of
Education for Pure Sciences, University of Mosul. Nitrate
ions were estimated according to the ultraviolet screening
method numbered (4500-NO3- B), by taking a known
volume from the filtered water sample, then 1 ml of HCl (1N)
was added to it, shaken well to homogenize the sample, and
then measured using a UV spectrophotometer of the
Shimadzu type, of Japanese origin, on the wavelengths are
220 and 275 nm, taking into account the Blank work to
correct the readings, and then compared with the standard
curve (APHA, 1988; 2017).
2.4. Estimating the damages and risks of nitrate ions:
Two models were used for this purpose:
2.4.1. Nitrate Pollution Index (NPI):
The presence of nitrates is one of the vital factors for
assessing the quality of groundwater [15,16]. As a result of its
serious effects on human and animal health, the (NPI) was
estimated using the following equation
(PANNEERSELVAM, 2020; MUHIB et al, 2023)
NPI = Ci – HAN/ HAN (01)
where: NPI = degree of water pollution with nitrates for the study
areas, Ci = measured nitrate ion concentration in groundwater,
HAN = acceptable nitrate levels for humans (10 ppm) according to
(AL-HAMDANY et. al., 2020; MUHIB et. al., 2023).
After finding the value of (NPI) the degree of water
pollution with nitrate is classified into five categories as
follows: NPI ≤ 0.0 – Clean level., 0.1 -1.0 – Light polluted.,
1.1 – 2.0 – Moderate polluted., 2.1-3.0 – Polluted water., NPI
> 3.0 - Very Polluted water.
2.4.2. Human Health Risk of Nitrate
The mathematical model was used to evaluate the health
risks of nitrate ions in drinking water, which was referred to
by the US Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA), as it
is considered one of the very few studies of water resources
in Iraq, and it is also considered a good method for assessing
the health risks of nitrates on the health of consumers for all
age groups. Calculated from the following equations
(SHALYARI et. al., 2019; ZHANGE et. al., 2019; CHEN et.
al., 2021; ALHARBI et. al., 2023) :
CDI = ∗∗∗
∗ (02)
HQ= HI= 
 (03)
whereas: CDI = chronic daily intake (mg/kg.d).; HQ = Hazard
Quotient.; Cw = nitrate concentration measured in water samples.;
IR = the daily rate of drinking water (L. day-1).; EF = exposure
frequency according to age (day, year).; ED = duration of exposure
to nitrate (year).; Bw = body weight by age group (kg).; AT =
average time (day).; RfD = measured nitrate reference dose (1.6
mg/kg.daily).
3. RESULTS
The results shown in Table 2 and Figure 3 indicate the
values of nitrate ions that ranged between 3.0 and 15.0 ppm,
with rates between 3.0 ± 0.26 to 12.3 ± 0.05 ppm, this is the
relative increase in the concentrations of nitrate ions in some
waters studied, it may be caused by the excessive use of
nitrogen fertilizers by farmers, as the remaining quantities are
washed away to reach groundwater (DOUNA; YOUSEFI,
2023; GROUT et. al., 2023).
Table 2. Nitrate ion concentration (ppm) for groundwater of Wana Sub-district.
Tabela (2): Concentração de íon nitrato (ppm) para águas subterrâneas do subdistrito de Wana.
Date
Site 30/7 13/8 27/8 3/9 10/9 17/9 1/10 15/10 5/11 4/12
S1 9.0 10 9.0 9.0 9.0 11 11 10 10 10
S2 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12
S3 11 11 15 11 11 12 12 12 12 12
S4 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12
S5 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12
S6 11 11 11 11 11 12 12 12 12 11
S7 11 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12
S8 12 12 12 12 12 13 12 12 12 12
S9 3.0 3.0 4.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0
S10 7.0 7.0 7.0 7.0 7.0 8.0 8.0 8.0 7.0 8.0
Likewise, the improper disposal of agricultural and animal
waste, as it is subjected to a series of vital processes by the
action of microorganisms, leads to the formation of nitrate
compounds; Amino acids are converted to ammonia (NH3)
and then to nitrates by the process of nitrification, as in the
following equation (AL-SAFFAWI; AL-BHAR, 2021; AL-
MASHHADANY, 2022):
Amino acid (RNH2)  
󰇒
⎯
⎯
⎯
⎯
⎯
⎯
⎯
⎯
⎯
⎯
⎯
⎯
⎯
⎯
󰇏
+ NH4+
NH4+ 
󰇒
⎯
⎯
⎯
⎯
⎯
⎯
⎯
⎯
⎯
󰇏
NO2- ———› NO3-
As for the decrease in concentration in some
groundwater, it may be due to self-purification processes and
the possibility of nitrate reduction by the denitrification
process and its loss in the form of N2 by different types of
Possible human health risks of nitrates in drinking water: a case study of groundwater in Wana District
Nativa, Sinop, v. 11, n. 2, p. 185-191, 2023.
188
bacteria, including pseudomonas, as in the following
equations (AL-MASHHADANY, 2022):
6NO3- + 2CH3OH 
󰇒
⎯
⎯
󰇏
6NO2- + 2CO2 + 4H2O
6NO2- + 3CH3OH 
󰇒
⎯
⎯
󰇏
3N2 + 3CO2 + 3H2O + 6OH-
Figure 3. Average concentrations of nitrate ions in the
groundwater of Wana Sub-district.
Figura 3. Concentrações médias de iões de nitrato nas águas
subterrâneas do subdistrito de Wana.
When comparing the current results with previous studies
conducted in Nineveh Governorate, they were higher than
the results of Al-Sinjari et. al. (2019) for the village of
Jaliukhan, southeast of the city of Mosul, as it amounted to
0.177 ppm, and relatively higher than the results of (Al-
Hamdany et. al., 2020), in which rates ranged between 1.23 -
9.66 ppm.
While it was close to the results obtained by Al-Bhar and
Al-Saffawi (2021) in their study of Al-Manara village, which
amounted to 15.0 ppm, while it was less than the results
obtained by Al-Mashhadany (2022) on the groundwater of
Sinjar district, which amounted to 48.8 ppm. Generally, the
concentrations are high in some regions of the world, as Yu
et. al. (2020) indicates a high concentration of nitrates in the
well water of rural areas in Yantai, China, reaching 166.4
ppm. This rise in NO3 concentrations is undesirable because
of its negative effects on the health of both humans and
animals (TOOLABI et. al., 2021).
3.1. Assessment of Hazard NO3 in water
3.1.1. Nitrate pollution Index (NPI)
The results ruled in Table 3 indicate that the values of the
nitrate pollution index of groundwater fluctuated between -
0.27 to 0.23, to classify the well water (1, 9, 10) as clean water,
while the rest of the studied groundwater was in the category
of light pollution. The relative increase is due to agricultural
activities and the use of fertilizers and pesticides in the study
area (GROUT et. al., 2023).
Table 3. Nitrate pollution index values and classification of the
studied water.
Tabela 3. Valores do índice de poluição por nitratos e classificação
das águas estudadas.
Sites
NPI
Categories
Sites
NPI
categories
1.
-
0.03
Clean water
6.
0.13
Light Polluted
2.
0.23
Light Polluted
7.
0.18
Light Polluted
3.
0.19
Light Polluted
8.
0.23
Light
Polluted
4.
0.23
Light Polluted
9.
-
0.70
Clean water
5.
0.22
Light Polluted
10.
-
0.27
Clean water
When comparing the results with other studies, we notice
that they are somewhat higher than the results obtained by
(Al-Hamadany et al., 2020) for the groundwater of the left
side of Mosul city, in which the (NPI) values fluctuated
between -0.9 to -0.5, and thus it is classified in the category
of water not contaminated with nitrates, while it was
consistent with the values that were calculated from the
results of Al-Bhar and Al-Saffawi (2021) for the groundwater
of Al-Manara village, northeast of Mosul, which ranged
between 0.08 to 0.21.
Also, the values of (NPI) are raised in some regions of
the world to reach 24.3 and 4.44 in the districts of Satkhira
and Manikganj in Bangladesh, to classify the studied water
from the category of very polluted water (Muhib et. al., 2023),
while the mean values for 77% of the groundwater of rural
areas in Yantai County, Shan-dong Province of China 1.46,
were to be classified as moderately polluted water (YU et. al.,
2020).
3.1.2. Human Health Risk of Nitrate (HHR):
According to Table 4, the HQ values of groundwater in
the Wana region were higher for newborns and children 6-11
years, than for the other age groups that were evaluated,
ranging between 0.134 to 0.548 and 0.084 to 0.346. This
increase is due to the relatively high values of (CDI), which
ranged between 0.2137 to 0.87617 and 0.114 to 0.0.550
mg/kg. daily, respectively. As for the age groups 18-21 years
and 21-old for females, the values of the risk quotient (HI)
fluctuated between 0.065 to 0.266 and 0.072 to 0.296, and
with chronic daily intake between 0.084 to 0.425 and 0.116 to
0.474 mg/kg. daily, consecutively.
4. DISCUSSION
As for the age group least affected by the risks of nitrates
16-18 years, in which the values of the risk quotient
fluctuated between 0.050 to 0.206, this decrease resulted
from the relative decrease in the chronic daily intake (CDI)
ranging between 0.081 to 0.330 mg/kg. daily.
When comparing our current results with other studies,
we note that they were relatively higher than the results
obtained by Al-Saffawi; Awad (2020) for the groundwater of
the village of Abu Wajna west of Mosul city, so the chronic
daily intake values ranged between 0.235 to 0.180 mg/kg.
day, with a risk quotient (QHI) between 0.147 to 0.113, and
relatively close to the results obtained by Al-Bhar; Al-Saffawi
(2021), so the daily intake ranges between 0.298 to 0.869
mg/kg. day with a hazard quotient between 0.86 to 0.543,
while it was less than the results obtained by Al-Gadi et. al.
(2023) when studying the groundwater of the villages
(Kharsbad, Baybukht, and Abbasiya) north-east of the city of
Mosul, in which the values of the hazard quotient reached
1.612, 1.822 and 1.843 and a daily intake of 2.579, 2.916 and
2.948 mg/kg. day, consecutively. These differences in results
between studies are due to differences in temporal, spatial,
and agricultural practices.
Fortunately, the values of the hazard quotient (HQ) were
within the safe limits recommended by the US
Environmental Protection Agency (HQ = 1.0), because the
high concentration of nitrates in drinking water has serious
consequences for consumers (AL-HAMDANY et al., 2020).
0
5
10
15
12345678910
NO3(ppm)
Sites
Al-Hussein et al.
Nativa, Sinop, v. 11, n. 2, p. 185-191, 2023.
189
Table 4. The results of the chronic daily intake (CDI mg/kg.d) and the hazard quotient (HQ) of groundwater for the Wana region.
Tabela 4. Os resultados da ingestão diária crônica (CDI mg/kg.d) e o quociente de risco (HQ) das águas subterrâneas para a região de Wana.
Site Cohort Infant 6-11 11-16 16-18 18-21 21 to Old
Females Males
1 CDI
HQI
0.691 0.437 0.319 0.260 0.335 0.374 0.323
0.432 0.273 0.199 0.163 0.209 0.234 0.202
2 CDI 0.876 0.554 0.404 0.330 0.425 0.474 0.409
HQI 0.548 0.346 0.252 0.206 0.266 0.296 0.256
3 CDI 0.848 0.536 0.391 0.319 0.411 0.459 0.396
HQI 0.530 0.335 0.244 0.200 0.257 0.287 0.255
4 CDI 0.876 0.554 0.404 0.330 0.425 0.474 0.409
HQI 0.548 0.346 0.252 0.206 0.265 0.296 0.256
5 CDI 0.869 0.550 0.401 0.327 0.421 0.470 0.405
HQI 0.543 0.344 0.250 0.205 0.263 0.294 0.254
6 CDI 0.805 0.509 0.371 0.303 0.390 0.436 0.376
HQI 0.503 0.318 0.232 0.190 0.244 0.272 0.235
7 CDI 0.841 0.532 0.388 0.317 0.407 0.455 0.394
HQI 0.525 0.332 0.242 0.198 0.255 0.284 0.245
8 CDI 0.876 0.554 0.404 0.330 0.425 0.474 0.409
HQI 0.548 0.346 0.252 0.206 0.266 0.296 0.256
9 CDI 0.214 0.135 0.099 0.081 0.104 0.116 0.100
HQI 0.134 0.084 0.062 0.050 0.065 0.072 0.062
10 CDI 0.520 0.329 0.240 0.196 0.252 0.281 0.242
HQI 0.325 0.206 0.150 0.122 0.157 0.176 0.152
5. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
This research is one of a small handful that has assessed
HHR in Iraq by factoring in variables such as age, period of
exposure, body weight, daily use of drinking water, nitrate
levels in drinking water, etc., and nitrate contamination index
(NPI). This research shows that:
1. The concentration of nitrates in the groundwater of
the Wana sub-district is within the levels allowed by WHO,
which is reflected in the values of (NPI) so that the studied
water is from the category (unpolluted water to light polluted
with nitrates).
2. Fortunately, the nitrate hazard quotient values
(HInitrate = HQI) were within the safe levels for drinking
according to (US-EPA) for all age groups, especially infants,
and there were no health risks to humans and livestock,
whether cancerous or non-cancerous.
Therefore, the study recommends periodic follow-ups of
the quality of water sources used for drinking, along with
educating farmers about the use of scientific fertilization
methods to preserve consumers' public health.
6. REFERENCES
ABBASNIA, A.; YOUSEFI, N.; MAHVI, A. H.;
NABIZADEH, R.; RADFARD, M.; YOUSEFI, M.;
ALIMOHAMMADI, M. Evaluation of groundwater
quality using water quality index and its suitability for
assessing water for drinking and irrigation purposes: Case
study of Sistan and Baluchistan province (Iran). Human
and Ecological Risk Assessment: An International
Journal, v. 25, n.4, p. 988-1005, 2019.
https://doi.org/10.1080/10807039.2018.1458596
ADIMALLA, N.; LI, P. Occurrence, health risks, and
geochemical mechanisms of fluoride and nitrate in
groundwater of the rock-dominant semi-arid region,
Telangana State, India. Human and Ecological Risk
Assessment: An International Journal, v. 25, n. 1-2, p.
81-103, 2019.
https://doi.org/10.1080/10807039.2018.1480353
AHMED, G. A. H.; SANTURAKI, A. H.; MUKHTAR, M.
Assessing the pollution indicator in groundwater in
Hadejia metropolis, Jigawa state, Nigeria. International
Journal of Chemistry Studies, v. 3, n. 2, p. 11-13, 2019.
AL-BHAR, B. M. A.; AL-SAFFAWI, A. Y. T. Health effect
of nitrate concentration in the groundwater of Al-Manara
village, north-east of Mosul city Iraq. Science Archives,
v. 2, n. 3, p. 267-271. 2021.
https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.2.16700.16005
AL-GADI, N. A. S.; AL-SAFFAWI, A. Y. T.; BÉJAOUI,
M.; MAHMOUDI, E. Investigation of the potential
risks to the human health risk of fluoride and nitrate via
water consumption for some areas in Nineveh
Governorate, Iraq. Acta Geophysica, p. 1-15, 2023.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s116000-2201006-z
AL-HAMDANY, N. A. S.; AL-SHAKER, Y. M. S.; AL-
SAFFAWI, A. Y. T. Application of nitrate pollution
index (NPI) to evaluate the health safety of wells water
for some quarters of the left side of Mosul city, Iraq.
Biochemical and Cellular Archives, v. 20, n. 2, p. 6063-
6068, 2020.
ALHARBI, T.; EL-SOROGY, A. S. Health Risk Assessment
of Nitrate and Fluoride in the Groundwater of Central
Saudi Arabia. Water, v. 15, n. 12, e2220, 2023.
https://doi.org/10.3390/w15122220
AL-MASHHADANY, M. H. S. Valuation of groundwater
contaminated with nitrates and human health risks
(HHR) between villages of Sinjar and Tal Afar districts,
Iraq. Pakistan Journal of Analytical & Environmental
Chemistry, v. 23, n. 2, p. 277-287, 2022.
http://doi.org/10.21743/pjaec/2022.12.10
AL-SAFFAWI, A. Y. T.; AWAD, M. H. Human health risk
(HHR) of Nitrates in the groundwater of Abuwajnah
village, Talafar district Iraq. World Journal of
Possible human health risks of nitrates in drinking water: a case study of groundwater in Wana District
Nativa, Sinop, v. 11, n. 2, p. 185-191, 2023.
190
Pharmaceutical and Life Sciences, v. 6, n. 8, p. 13-19,
2020.
AL-SAWAF, F. D. Hydrogeology of South Sinjar Plain
NW-Iraq. 211p. Doctoral Thesis – University of
London, 1977. Available on:
https://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/id/eprint/1349178/
AL-SINJARI, W. E.; AL-SAFFAWI, A. Y. T.; AL-TAEE, Y.
A. J. Application of WQI Model to Assessment of water
for irrigation and livestock drinking purpose: the case
study, Groundwater quality of Gleewkhan village
southeastern of Mosul city, Iraq. Journal of
Engineering and Applied Sciences, v. 14, n. 9, p.
10706-10710, 2019.
ALYAN, Y. J. M. Subsurface geology of the Felville and
wanh using geophysical data. 156p. Doctoral Thesis
(unpublished) [Philosophy in Earth Sciences and
Geophysics] - University of Mosul, College of Science,
Mosul, 2010.
APHA_AWWA and WCPE. Standard method for
examination of water and wastewater American
public Health Association, 20th ed. Washington DC,
USA. 1998.
APHA_AWWA and WCPE. Standard Method for
Examination of water and wastewater American
public Health Association, 23 ed; Washington DC,
USA. 2017.
BREDA, S. G.; MATHIJS, K.; KISS, V.; KUHNLE, G. G.;
VEER, B.; JONES, R. R.; SINHA, R.; WARD, M. H.;
KOK, T. M. Impact of high drinking water nitrate levels
on the endogenous formation of apparent N- nitroso
compounds in combination with meat intake in healthy
volunteers. Environmental Health, v. 18, p. 87-99,
2019. http://doi.org/10.1186/s12940-019-0525-z.
CHEN, F.; YAO, FL; MEI, G; SHANG, Y; XIONG, F;
DING, Z. Groundwater quality and potential human
health risk assessment for drinking and irrigation
purposes: a case study in the Semiarid Region of North
China. Water, v. 13, e783 2021.
https://doi.org/10.3390/w13060783
COFFMAN, V. R.; JENSEN, A. S.; TRABJERG, B. B.;
PEDERSEN, C. B.; HANSEN, B.; SIGSGAARD, T.;
OLSEN, J.; SCHAUMBURG, I.; SCHULLEHNER,
J.; PEDERSEN, M.; STAYNER, L. T. Prenatal exposure
to nitrate from drinking water and markers of fetal
growth restriction: A population-based study of nearly
one million Danish-born children. Environmental
Health Perspectives, v. 129, n. 2, e27002, 2021.
https://doi.org/10. 1289/EHP73 31
DOUNA, B.K; YOUSEFI, H. Risk of nitrate residues in
food products and drinking water. Asian Pacific Journal
of Environment and Cancer, v. 6, n. 1, p. 69-79, 2023.
https://doi.org/10.31557/APJEC.2023.6.1.69-79
GROUT, L.; CHAMBERS, T.; HALES, S.; PRICKETT, M.;
BAKER, M. G.; WILSON, N. The potential human
health hazard of nitrates in drinking water: a media
discourse analysis in a high‑income country.
Environmental Health, v. 22, e09, 2023.
https://doi.org/10.1186/s12940-023-00960-5
JUNTAKUT, P.; HAACKER, E. M.; SNOW, D. D.; RAY,
C. Risk and Cost Assessment of Nitrate Contamination
in Domestic Wells. Water, v. 12, e428, 2020.
https://doi.org/10.3390/w12020428
LI, D.; NISHI, S. K.; JOVANOVSKI, E.; ZURBAU, A.;
KOMISHON, A.; MEJIA, S. B.; KHAN, T. A.;
SIEVENPIPER, J. L.; MILICIC, D.; JENKINS, A.;
VUKSAN, V. Repeated administration of inorganic
nitrate on blood pressure and arterial stiffness: a
systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized
controlled trials. Journal of Hypertension, v. 38, n. p.
2122-2140, 2020.
http://doi.org/10.1097/HJH.0000000000002524
LIN, L.; CLAIR, S.; GAMBLE, G. D.; CROWTHER, C. A.;
DIXON, L.; BLOOMFIELD, F. H.; HARDING, J. E.
Nitrate contamination in drinking water and adverse
reproductive and birth outcomes: a systematic review and
meta‑analysis. Scientific Reports, v. 13, e563. 2023.
https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-022-27345-x
MOTHFER, Z. A.; AL-SAFFAWI, A. Y. T. Probabilistic risk
of nitrates to human health via drinking water: A case
study of water supply for Dandan station and its quarters
in Mosul city, Iraq. Journal of Advances in
Environmental Health Research, 2023.
https://doi.org/10.22102/JAEHR.2023.356398.1310
MUHIB, I.; ALI, M.; TAREQ, S. M.; RAHMAN, M. Nitrate
Pollution in the Groundwater of Bangladesh: An
Emerging Threat. Sustainability, v. 15, n. 10, e8188,
2023. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15108188
NUJIĆ, M.; HABUDA-STANIĆ, M. Nitrates and nitrites,
metabolism and toxicity. Food in Health and Disease,
v. 6, n. 2, p. 48-89. 2017.
PANNEERSELVAM, P.; KARUPPANNAN, S.;
MUNIRAJ, K. Evaluation of drinking and irrigation
suitability of groundwater with special emphasizing the
health risk posed by nitrate contamination using nitrate
pollution index (NPI) and human health risk assessment
(HHRA). Human and Ecological Risk Assessment, v.
27, p. 1324-1348. 2020.
https://doi.org/10.1080/10807039.2020.1833300
SHALYARI, N.; ALINEJAD, A.; HASHERNI, A. H.;
RADFARD, M.; DEHGHANI, M. Health risk
assessment of nitrate in groundwater resources of
Iranshahr using Monte Carlo simulation and geographic
information system (GIS). MethodsX, v. 6, p. 1812-
1821, 2019.
SHERRIS, A. R.; BAIOCCHI, M.; FENDORF, S.; LUBY,
S. P.; YANG, W.; SHAW, G. M. Nitrate in drinking water
during pregnancy and spontaneous preterm birth: A
retrospective within- other analysis in California.
Environmental Health Perspectives, v. 129, n. 5,
e57001, 2021. https://doi.org/10. 1289/EHP8205
STAYNER, L. T.; JENSEN, A. S.; SCHULLEHNER, J.;
COFFMAN, V. R.; TRABJERG, B. B.; OLSEN, J.;
HANSEN, B.; PEDERSEN, M.; PEDERSEN, C. B.;
SIGSGAARD, T. Nitrate in drinking water and risk of
birth defects: findings from a cohort study of over one
million births in Denmark. The Lancet Regional
Health – Europe, v. 14, e100286, 2022.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lanepe.2021.100286
TEMKIN, A.; EVANS, S.; MANIDIS, T.; CAMPBELL, C.;
NAIDENKO, O. V. Exposure-based assessment and
economic valuation of adverse birth outcomes and cancer
risk due to nitrate in United States drinking water.
Environmental Research, v. 176, e108442, 2019.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2019.04.009
Al-Hussein et al.
Nativa, Sinop, v. 11, n. 2, p. 185-191, 2023.
191
TOOLABI, A.; BONYADI, Z.; PAYDAR, M.;
NAJAFPOOR, A. A.; RAMAVANDI, B. Spatial
distribution, occurrence, and health risk assessment of
nitrate, fluoride, and arsenic in Bam groundwater
resource, Iran. Groundwater for Sustainable
Development, v. 12, e100543, 2021.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gsd.2020.100543
VERMEER, I. T. M.; PACHEN, F. D. M.; DALLINGA, J.
W.; KLEINJANS, J. C. S.; MAANEN, M. S. Volatile N-
Nitrosamine formation after intake of nitrate at the ADI
Level in combination with an amine-rich diet.
Environmental Health Perspectives, v. 106, n. 8, p.
459-463, 1998.
WHO_WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION.
Guidelines for Drinking-water Quality. 4th Edition.
Switzerland: WHO, 2017. 631p.
YU, G.; WANG, J.; LIU, L.; LI, Y.; ZHANG, Y.; WANG, S.
The analysis of groundwater nitrate pollution and health
risk assessment in rural areas of Yantai, China. BMC
Public Health, v. 20, p. 437-443, 2020.
https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-020-08583-y
ZHANGE, Q.; XU, P.; QIAM, H. Assessment of
groundwater quality and Human Health risk (HHR),
evaluation of nitrate in the central-western Guanhony
basin. China. International Journal of Environmental
Research and Public Health, v. 16, e4246, 2019.
https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16214246
ZUCKERBRAUN, B. S.; GEORGE, P.; MARK, T.;
GLADWIN, M. T. Nitrite in pulmonary arterial
hypertension: therapeutic avenues in the setting of
dysregulated arginine/nitric oxide synthase signalling.
Cardiovascular Research, v. 89, n. 3, p. 542–552, 2017.
https://doi.org/10.1093/cvr/cvq370
Acknowledgments: The researchers wish to express their gratitude
to the University of Mosul's administration, represented by Prof.
Qusai Kamal Al-Din Al-Ahmadi, as well as the deans of the College
of Education for Pure Sciences and the College of Environment and
Technology, for their unwavering dedication to and provision of all
resources necessary to conduct their studies. We'd also want to
express our appreciation to everyone who helped us out throughout
this study.
Author Contributions: A.I.A.Al-H.; A.Y.T.Al-S.; Y.M.S.Al-S. –
methodology; research or data collection; statistical analysis; writing
(proof-reading and editing); administration, supervision and writing
(original draft). All authors read and agreed to the published version
of the manuscript.
Funding: Not applicable.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Raw and analyzed data can be
obtained by request to the corresponding Author by e-mail.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare that there is no conflict
of interests regarding the publication of this paper.