Nativa, Sinop, v. 10, n. 3, p. 400-409, 2022.

Pesquisas Agrárias e Ambientais

DOI: https://doi.org/10.31413/nativa.v10i3.14123 ISSN: 2318-7670

Wood vinegar: chemical characteristics, phytotoxic effects,

and impacts on greenhouse gas emissions

Marina Moura MORALES1*, Wyllian Winckler SARTORI2, Bruno Rafael SILVA2, Silvio Tulio SPERA3,

Andréa Beatriz Divério MENDES4, Eliane Papa AMBROSIO-ALBUQUERQUE4

1Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation (Embrapa Florestas), Colombo, PR, Brazil.

2Federal Institute of Education, Science and Technology of Mato Grosso, Sinop, Brazil.

3Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation (Embrapa Agrosilvopastoral), Sinop, MT, Brazil.

4State University of Maringá, Maringá, PR, Brazil.

E-mail: marina.morales@embrapa.br

ORCID: (0000-0001-9125-7239; 0000-0001-8561-7808; 0000-0001-5458-7941;

0000-0001-5344-7509; 0000-0002-7955-1168; 0000-0002-8874-6047)

Submitted on 2022/07/15; Accepted on 2022/09/05; Published on 2022/09/19.

ABSTRACT: Wood vinegar has been used for over a century as a fertilizer and antimicrobial agent, but its

impacts on ecosystems are poorly understood; further research is necessary to understand its chemical

characteristics and avoid negative impacts. This study assessed the chemical characteristics, phytotoxicity,

potential cytotoxicity, and greenhouse gas emissions of wood vinegar made from slow pyrolysis in a hot-tail

kiln using cambara wood (Qualea sp.). Incubation experiments with varying concentrations of wood vinegar

were established in samples of clayey, loamy, and sandy tropical soils, measuring CO2, N2O, and CH4 over a

120-day period. Toxic effects on the germination, root tips, and meristematic cells of Lactuca sativa were also

assessed. The findings confirmed that wood vinegar can function as a chemical fertilizer and pesticide, as well

as a co-solvent for chemicals, particularly in agricultural and pharmaceutical applications, while the

phytotoxicity indicated that this substance must be diluted for agricultural uses. Wood vinegar was seen to

inhibit CO2 and N2O emissions from loamy and clayey soils, but this effect was not observed in sandy soil.

Wood vinegar also blocked cell division in some dilutions, but at concentrations of less than 0.5% it did not

present a potential risk to the environment or plants in general.

Keywords: pyroligneous acid; biomass; pyrolysis; residues; cytotoxicity.

Vinagre de madeira: características químicas, efeitos fitotóxicos

e impactos nas emissões de gases

RESUMO: O vinagre de madeira é usado há mais de um século como fertilizante e agente antimicrobiano,

mas seus impactos nos ecossistemas são pouco conhecidos; pesquisas são necessárias para entender suas

características e evitar impactos negativos. Este estudo avaliou as características químicas, fitotoxicidade,

potencial citotoxicidade e emissões de gases do vinagre de madeira obtido a partir de pirólise lenta em forno

de cauda quente utilizando madeira de cambará (Qualea sp.). Experimentos de incubação com concentrações

variadas do vinagre foram estabelecidos em amostras de solos tropicais argilosos, textura média e arenosos,

medindo CO2, N2O e CH4 durante 120 dias. Efeitos tóxicos no modelo Lactuca sativa também foram avaliados.

Os resultados confirmaram que o vinagre de madeira pode funcionar como fertilizante químico e pesticida,

bem como um co-solvente para produtos químicos, principalmente em aplicações agrícolas e farmacêuticas,

enquanto a fitotoxicidade indicou que essa substância deve ser diluída para uso agrícola. O vinagre de madeira

parece inibir as emissões de CO2 e N2O de solos argilosos e textura média, mas esse efeito não foi observado

em solo arenoso. O vinagre de madeira também bloqueou a divisão celular em algumas diluições, mas em

concentrações inferiores a 0,5% não apresentou risco potencial ao meio ambiente ou às plantas em geral.

Palavras-chave: ácido pirolenhoso; biomassa; pirólise; resíduos; citotoxicidade.

1. INTRODUCTION

Charcoal has been used as an energy source for thousands

of years. Although for most of this time it was the main

product (biofuel and biochar) of conventional pyrolysis,

recently by-products of this process such as wood vinegar

have become increasingly important, specifically as a

pesticide and a solvent for chemical pesticides, but also for

fertilizer, once it has plant nutrients bioavailable

(TIILIKKALA et al., 2010).

Wood vinegar (also known as pyroligneous acid) starts as

smoke from the charcoal kiln that is usually channeled into a

long pipe to permit condensation. This liquid is then left to

stand for several weeks, forming three layers: light oil on top,

translucent brown wood vinegar in the middle, and thick

wood tar at the bottom. Only translucent brown wood

vinegar is used for agricultural purposes

(MUNGKUNKAMCHAO et al., 2013).

Wood vinegar can contain more than 200 compounds

including phenols, polyphenols, acetic acid (Velmurugan et

al., 2009), ketones, esters, aldehydes, and alcohols (ZHAI et

al., 2015). Because of their low pH and high organic load,

these substances cannot be disposed in the environment

Morales et al.

Nativa, Sinop, v. 10, n. 3, p. 400-409, 2022.

401

without treatment (Fagernas et al., 2012), and must be diluted

or neutralized.

Depending on its concentration, wood vinegar exhibits a

high degree of antimicrobial activity against various

microorganisms (Ma et al., 2011; Yang et al., 2016) and can

stimulate microbial activity in soils (STEINER et al., 2008).

Additionally, because it is manufactured under various

conditions, wood vinegar can differ in its chemical

composition and toxicity, and risks to human health have

been reported (MUKHTAR et al., 1982; SCHOKET et al.,

1990; SCHMID; KORTING, 1996). Similar risks must be

considered for plant and soil uses; for example, it is important

to determine whether polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs)

are present, since they are stable in the environment and

rapidly transported to humans through the food chain

(BASAVAIAH et al., 2017; PETROVA et al., 2017). The US

Environmental Protection Agency (1993) has listed 16 PAHs

as priority pollutants, including naphthalene, acenaphthene,

acenaphthylene, fluorene, phenanthrene, anthracene,

fluoranthene, pyrene, benzo(α)anthracene, chrysene,

benzo(β)fluoranthene, benzo(κ)fluoranthene,

benzo(α)pyrene, indeno(1,2,3-cd)pyrene, dibenzo(a,

a)anthracene, and benzo(ghi)perylene.

Applying wood vinegar to the soil can also impact

production of greenhouse gases; because a main constituent,

acetic acid, is substrate for methanogens, it may increase CH4

emissions (KYUMA, 2004). It can also decrease N2O

emissions by preventing the dissociation of NH4+ into liquid

NH3 concentration by reducing pH (SIGUNGA et al., 2002).

Furthermore, CO2 emission is stimulated by microbial

activity in the soil after application of wood vinegar (Steiner

et al., 2008). It is important to note that greenhouse gases

such as CO2, N2O, and CH4 account for 60% of total

atmospheric emissions (CHANGE, 2007).

However, the impact of wood vinegar on plant and soil

toxicity, amendments to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, as

well the different concentrations of this substance, are not

well understood in soils. Further, research is necessary to

understand the chemical characteristics that justify

agricultural applications of wood vinegar and avoid negative

environmental consequences. This study investigated wood

vinegar’s effects on greenhouse gases emission (CO2, CH4,

and N2O) from soil, soil toxicity via PAHs and organic

compounds, bioavailable nutrient content, pH buffer

capacity, and phytotoxicity.

2. MATERIAL AND METHODS

2.1. Wood vinegar production

The wood vinegar was made from cambara wood (Qualea

sp.) sawdust by local small-scale producers in a hot-tail kiln

in Vilhena, Rondonia state-Brazil. The wood vinegar

production details are described in Morales et al., 2019.

2.2. Chemical characterization of wood vinegar

The total carbon (TC), total inorganic carbon (TIC), and

total organic carbon (TOC) were analyzed in WVcam by

Elementar Analysensysteme GmbH. The pH titration curve

was analysed by continued addingadition of 0.5 ml of 0.1 N

NaOH to 50 ml of WEBcam, until pH stabilization.

Additional chemical analysis of plant nutrients (Ca, Mg, Cu,

Mn, K and Zn), organic compounds and Poly-aromatic

Hydrocarbon (PAH) Analysis The total PAH analysis are

described in detail in Morales et al. (2019).

The majority and main chemical and/or pharmaceutical

usefulness of the organic compounds was investigated using

the flow databases: SciFinder (scifinder-

cas.ez103.periodicos.capes.gov.br) and ChemSpider

(http://www.chemspider.com) databases.

2.3. Soil preparation and incubation

Soils chemical analysis (Table 1) was performed

according to Brazil, 2007 to determine: total N by the

oxidation method with perchloric acid and extraction by

sulphuric acid determined by semi-micro Kjeldahl

distillation; pH in water (1:2.5); organic C by the volumetric

oxidation method with K2Cr2O7 and titration with

ammonium ferrous sulfate; total Ca, Mg, Cu, Fe, Mn, and Zn

via extraction with nitric-perchloric acid solution and

spectrometry of atomic absorption; total K by extraction with

nitric-perchloric acid solution and determination by flame

photometry; total S by extraction with nitric-perchloric acid

solution and determination by photocolorimetry; total P was

analyzed by digestion with H2SO4 and H2O2.

The incubation experiment was set up at 25 °C at field

capacity, which offers optimum conditions for many

microbial processes and was used to maximize microbial

activity. The WVcam was added at field capacity, at rates of

0, 1.25, 2, 50, and 100%, to 5 g samples of tropical soil classes,

namely clayey (Ferralsol Haplic Dystric Clayic), loamy

(Ferralsol Haplic Dystric Loamic), and sandy (Ferralsol

Plinthic Dystric Arenic) soil (FAO, 2014).

The CO2, N2O, and CH4 were measured at 1, 3, 7, 11, 14,

21, 28, 49, 60, 81, and 120 days in a gas chromatograph

equipped with a dual electron capture detector (ECD) for

N2O, flame ionization detector (FID) for CO2 and CH4, and

column and injector. Ultrapure nitrogen was used as the

carrier gas at an inlet pressure of 300 kPa (40 psi) and as the

detector make-up gas at a flow rate of 25 ml min-1.

To CO2, N2O, and CH4 emissions were calculated by the

equation below, exemplified for CO2:

([CO2 (mg ℓ-1) = { [CO2] (gζ -1). Pot volume (ζ)]/ soil mass (g)) .Pot

pressure (atm) / R (atm ζ mol -1 K-1.Pot temperature (K) . CO2gmol-1

2.4. Cytotoxicity analysis

2.4.1. Germination and root growth assay

This study was previously established to determine the

concentrations used in phytotoxicity and cytotoxicity testing.

Seeds of L. sativa L. (2n = 2x = 18) var. “Grand rapids TBR”

(Feltrin Seeds Brazil, Farroupilha, RS, Brazil) were purchased

at local garden supply stores, separated into plates containing

100 seeds, then placed on germination paper with 5 mℓ of

WVcam solution at 0.5, 1.25, 5, 25, 50, and 100%. Distilled

water was used as a negative control solution. The tests were

performed with two replicates and incubated for 4 days at 25

°C in a BOD incubator. The percentage of germinated seeds

(total germinated seeds/total seeds per treatment × 100) was

determined and root growth was measured after 48, 72, and

96 h of exposure time.

Based on pre-tests, a cell cycle analysis was conducted

with 0.5% WVcam to evaluate the wood vinegar’s phytotoxic

potential. The roots were collected per Petri dish per

treatment and fixed in a fresh cold solution of ethanol and

acetic acid (3:1 v/v). To prepare the slides, the meristematic

region was boiled in 2% acetic orcein, transferred to a slide,

covered with a coverslip, and carefully pressed into a drop of

2% acetic orcein solution. These were analyzed under a light

Wood vinegar: chemical characteristics, phytotoxic effects, and impacts on greenhouse gas emissions

Nativa, Sinop, v. 10, n. 3, p. 400-409, 2022.

402

microscope and approximately 3,000 cells per treatment were

counted. The parameters analyzed included mitotic index

(calculated as the number of dividing cells as a fraction of the

total observed cells) and chromosomal aberrations

(expressed as percentage of aberrations found in the total

number).

2.5. Statistical analysis

Statistical analysis of WVcam biodegradation (CO2) and

N2O emissions were performed via three-way ANOVA to

test the effects of soil texture, concentration of WVcam, and

time; the differences in mean values were tested using the

Tukey test (p<0.05). Because CH4 emission was unaffected,

this data will not be presented.

The data were also tested by comparing curves for

cumulative CO2 and N2O; the linear model was best suited

and utilized for the treatments in soil textures separately, and

the model coefficients were compared for equality. To do so,

the likelihood ratio test was used, with accuracy determined

by the chi-square (χ 2) statistic (REGAZZI; SILVA, 2010).

This method involves adding two independent variables, D1

and D2, to calculate the maximum likelihood estimates of the

parameters under no restrictions in the parametric space

representing the complete model, and under restriction in the

reduced model. The complete model was adjusted under no

restrictions and the reduced model was adjusted to

restrictions defined in H0.

Seed germination and root growth data were subjected to

repeated measure ANOVA, and Tukey’s test (p<0.05) was

applied to the differences in mean values.

Table 1. Chemical analysis of the clayey, loamy, and sandy soil samples.

Tabela 1. Análises químicas das amostras de solo argiloso, textura média e arenoso.

Class

Soil

pH N P K Ca Mg Al H+Al SOM OC C/N S

- g kg-1 mg kg-1

------------------------cmolc dm-3---------- --------g kg-1-------- - mg kg-1

Clayey 5.6 1.3 25.9 0.08 1.36 0.25 0.33 5.00 34.2 19.9 15 11.0

Loamy 6.0 0.9 78.9 0.13 2.66 1.28 0 3.00 37.3 21.7 24 3.0

Sandy 5.4 0.7 19.4 0.12 1.29 0.66 0.20 6.10 24.8 14.4 21 1.0

Class

Soil B Cu Fe Mn Zn BSum CEC V m Clay Silt Sand

---------------------------

mg kg

-1

--------------------------

----

------cmolc dm-3----

-----------

----------

----------------

g kg

–1

------------

Clayey 0.13 0.4 44 4.6 1.4 1.7 6.7 25 16 632 34 334

Loamy 0.28 1.1 43 14.5 4.0 4.1 7.1 57 0 247 20 753

Sandy 0.20 1.0 71 4.7 3.1 2.1 8.2 25 9 182 43 815

CEC = cation exchange capacity; SOM= soil organic matter; H+Al = potential acidity; BSum = sum of soil bases (Ca, Mg and K); V (%) = soil base percent

saturation; m (%) = soil aluminum percent saturation.

3. RESULTS

3.1. Chemical characteristics of wood vinegar

WVcam exhibited the capability to partially replace chemical

fertilizer (Table 2), most notably due to its Mn content (Brasil

e Abastecimento., 2016). Use of this substance as a fertilizer

is becoming more important for many crops; it cannot

entirely replace soil fertilization but can supplement a sound

soil fertilization program (POLTHANEE et al., 2015).

However, its use is generally based on local knowledge rather

than scientific research (Tiilikkala et al., 2010), which poses

certain environmental risks for soil and water contamination,

toxicity, and impacts on soil microbiota.

Table 2. Wood vinegar (WVcam) chemical characteristics.

Tabela 2. Características químicas do vinagre de madeira.

Parameters

WVcam

pH ___

2.68

----------(mg l

-1

)---------

0.46

K 3.33

Ca 4.87

Mg 0.76

Mn 5.63

Zn 0.13

TIC 1.64

TOC 275.59

Source: Morales et al., 2019.

WVcam contains 38 kinds of organic compounds

belonging to four main groups (Table 3). The phenol group

is the primary group: the main chemicals compounds are

cresol (11.70%), guaiacol (6.6%), and syringol (3.17%).

Chemical compounds of wood vinegar determined via CG-

MS analysis. The main chemical compound in the carboxyl

group is acetic acid (10.28%); this weak acid is most likely the

main reason for the low pH values and buffer capacity (Table

3, Figure 1).

Figure 1. Titration curve for wood vinegar (WVcam) made with

Cambara (Qualea sp.). Source: Adapted from Morales et al., 2019.

Figura 1. Curva de titulação do vinagre de madeira (WVcam) feito

com Cambará (Qualea sp.). Fonte: Adaptado de Morales et al, 2019.

The Figures 3 and 4 and Table 5 illustrates the results of

cytotoxicity analysis. In the cell cycle analysis, germination

and root growth was impeded in L. sativa seeds treated with

WVcam in concentrations above 1.25% (Figure 3a,b). At

0.5%, WVcam inhibited seed germination and root growth,

which can be explained by the inhibitors such as phenolic

compounds contained in wood vinegar (Table 3).

0 100 200 300 400

NaOH added (mℓ)

Morales et al.

Nativa, Sinop, v. 10, n. 3, p. 400-409, 2022.

403

Table 3. Wood vinegar (WVcam) chemical compounds determined by CG-MS analysis.

Tabela 3. Componentes químicos do vinagre de madeira determinado por CG-MS.

Compounds

Usefulness

References

cam

5-methyl-2-Furancarboxaldehyde

or 5-methylfurfural

3.84 Chemical for synthesis/manufacture of fine

chemicals,1,2 potential candidate for treating sickle

cell disease3

1(Merck, 2017b); 2(Sigma-Aldrich,

2017b); 3(Abdulmalik et al., 2005).

1-hydroxy-2-propanone or acetol

0.43

Important intermediate used to produce polyols

and acrolein;1 widely used as a reduced dye in the

textile industry2 and as a skin tanning agent in the

cosmetic industry, also adds aroma and flavor to

foods3

1(Zhu et al., 2013); 2(Soucaille et al.);

3(Mohamad et al., 2011).

2-Cyclopenten-1-one 0.44

methyl

cyclopenten

one

0.32

2-acetylfuran 0.50

3-methyl-2-cyclopenten-1-one 0.39

Methyl 4

Hydroxy

methoxybenzoate

0.46

Carbonyl 6.38

Acetic acid

10.28

Mainly used in industrial chemicals, to produce

polymers derived from vinyl acetate production of

purified terephthalic acid, which is used to produce

polyethylene terephthalate (PET). Raw material

for acetic anhydride and acetate esters, which like

acetic acid itself, are widely used as solvents.1,2 In

the food industry, used as an acidity regulator3

1(Icis, 2017); 2(Le Berre et al., 2013);

3(Scienceofcooking).

Propionic acid 0.82

Ethenyl ester

0.72

Butanoic acid 0.36

Octanoic acid 0.28

Carboxyl

12.46

2-methoxy-Phenol or Guaiacol

6.6

Antimicrobial,

1,2

reduces gastric erosions induced

by classic anti-inflammatory drugs (ibuprofen)3,

antidiarrheal agent,4 and antioxidant5

(Sigma

Aldrich, 2017d);

(Cooper,

2013); 3(Fossati et al., 1991);

4(Greenwood-Van Meerveld et al.,

1999); 5(Yang et al., 2016).

4-methoxy-3-methyl-Phenol 0.93

2,6-dimethyl-Phenol 0.52

methoxy

methyl

Phenol

0.95

2-methoxy-4-methyl-Phenol or

creosol

11.70

Flavor Standards, Food and Cosmetic

Component Standards1,2, antidiarrheal agent3

1(Sigma-Aldrich, 2017a); 2(Sigma-

Aldrich, 2017c); 3(Greenwood-Van

Meerveld et al., 1999).

methyl

Phenol or o

cresol

2.42

Phenol 1.75

4-ethyl-2-methoxy-Phenol or 4-

Ethylguaiacol

8.92

4-ethyl-3-methyl-Phenol 0.77

3-ethyl-5-methyl-Phenol 0.38

ethyl

Phenol

0.30

2,5-dimethyl-Phenol 0.91

2,4-dimethyl-Phenol 0.49

methoxy

propyl

Phenol

3.46

2,6-dimethoxy-4-(2-propyl)

Phenol

0,48

methoxy

propyl

Phenol)

0.48

2-methoxy-4-(2-propenyl) Phenol 1.16

3,4-dimethyl-Phenol 0.77

3,4,5-trimethyl-Phenol 0.81

ethyl

Phenol

1.44

2,6-dimethoxy-Phenol or syringol 3.17 antioxidant1,2 1(Yang et al., 2016); 2 (Loo et al.,

2008)

propyl

syringol

3.10

Component of wood adhesives

(Pimenta, 2007)

Phenol 58.26

7,8-dimethyl benzo cyclooctene 4.55

Silicates 4.55

3,4-dimethoxy-toluene 0.82

Benzenethanol or Phenylethyl

alcohol

4.33

Chemical for synthesis,

anti

infective agent and

desinfectant2

[(Merck, 2017a)],

[(Chemspider,

2017)].

Others 5.62

Source: Morales et al., 2019.

Wood vinegar: chemical characteristics, phytotoxic effects, and impacts on greenhouse gas emissions

Nativa, Sinop, v. 10, n. 3, p. 400-409, 2022.

404

Figure 2. Cumulative C-CO2 and N-N2O emissions in incubations of loamy, clayey and sandy soils without WVcam (0%), and treated with

1.25, 25, 50, and 100%, until 120 days.

Figura 2. Emissões acumuladas de C-CO2 e N-N2O em solo argiloso, arenoso e de textura média sem WVcam (0%) e tratados nas

concentrações de 1.25, 25, 50 e 100%, por 120 dias.

Table 4. Concentration of individual and total polyaromatic

hydrocarbons (PAHs) in wood vinegar.

Tabela 4. Concentrações individuais e totais dos hidrocarbonetos

poliaromáticos (HPAs) no vinagre de madeira.

Polyaromatic hydrocarbons

cam

(ng g

-1

)

Naphthalene

18.73

Methylnaphthalene

5.25

methylnaphthalene

151.72

Acenaphthylene

134.00

Acenaphthene

31.49

Fluorene

10.50

Phenanthrene

4.81

Anthracene

0.58

Fluoranthene

Pyrene

Benzo(a)anthracene

Chrysene

Benzo(b)fluoranthene

Benzo(k)fluoranthene

Benzo(a)pyrene

Indeno(1.2.3

cd)anthracene

Dibenz(a,h)anthracene

Benzo(g,h,i)perylene

Total

357.12

Source: Morales et al., 2019.

Table 5. Mean percentage of chromosome aberrations in

meristematic lettuce cells, total cells evaluated, and mean mitotic

index from lettuce root cells

Tabela 5. Porcentagem média de aberrações cromossômicas em

células meristemáticas de alface, total de células avaliadas e índice

mitótico de células de raiz de alface

cam

concentration

0% (Control)

0.5%

Cell

cycle

phase

Interphase

Normal

91.51

92.39

Prophase

Normal

3.49

1.93

Abnormal

0.00

0.1

Metaphase

Normal

2.44

1.70

Abnormal

0.00

0.46

Anaphase

Normal

1.27

0.98

Abnormal

0.14

0.85

Telophase

Normal

1.15

1.32

Abnormal

0.00

0.27

N Total

100

Total of abnormal cells

0.13

1.63

Mitotic Index

Figure 3. Cumulative germination (a) and root growth (b) of L.

sativa over time when treated with different concentrations of

WCcam.

Figura 3. Germinação cumulativa (a) e crescimento da raiz (b) de

L.sativa em diferentes tempos e concentrações de WCcam.

4. DISCUSSION

A good example of how wood vinegar can be used as a

fertilizer can be seen in dry weather, because of the water it

contains. It is well known that a minimum level of soil

moisture is necessary for plants to absorb nutrients via roots.

During prolonged periods of dry weather, even fertilization

with wood vinegar will not be able to positively impact yields,

but during short dry spells this substance may offer an

alternative to maintain productivity.

Morales et al.

Nativa, Sinop, v. 10, n. 3, p. 400-409, 2022.

405

Figure 4. Chromosomal alterations observed: a, f) bridges at

anaphase; b) bridge at telophase; c,d) C-metaphases; e) unoriented

chromosomes at metaphase.

Figura 4. Alterações cromossômicas observadas: a, f) pontes na

anáfase; b) ponte na telófase; c,d) C-metáfases; e) cromossomos não

orientados na metáfase.

The total organic carbon (TOC) that wood vinegar adds

to the soil (Table 2) may also be an easily accessible source of

energy for microorganisms, and may stimulate or inhibit

plant growth and development due to its components,

especially low-molecular organic compounds (GONET;

DEBSKA, 2006).

It is important to remember that wood vinegar cannot be

indiscriminately disposed of without treatment in the

environment because of its low pH and high TOC values, or

applied as a pesticide or chemical fertilizer in agriculture. The

beneficial effects of wood vinegar for soils or plants are

directly related to the dosage used (MU et al., 2004;

MUNGKUNKAMCHAO et al., 2013; ZHAI et al., 2015;

MAHMUD et al., 2016). The pH of WVcam can be inversely

correlated with titratable acidity, as seen in Figure 1

(MONTAZERI et al., 2013). Unlike strong acids that are

fully dissociated, the acids in wood vinegar are only partially

ionized, which can be positively correlated with its carbonyl

and carboxyl group content.

Wood vinegar may also be used as a co-solvent for

agrochemicals, such as pesticides and growth regulators. For

many of these substances pH is a critical factor, and some

pesticides (particularly carbamate and organophosphate

insecticides) are broken down when combined with high pH

water. The rate and severity of the reaction are determined

by the pesticide’s susceptibility to hydrolysis (BAILEY;

BILDERBACK, 1998). A pH of 5.5 to 6.5 is ideal for mixing

most pesticides, which is why the directions for most

commercial pesticides recommend adding a buffering or

acidifying agent to the spray tank (FISHEL; FERREL, 2016).

Wood vinegar can act as a pH buffer and acidifying agent

(Figure 1) for mixing pesticides that require low pH, and can

also add readily available plant nutrients (Table 2). Mixing

wood vinegar and pesticides can improve costs and even

boost the effectiveness of the pesticide (ALEXANDER,

1986; KIM et al., 2008).

A wide range of total parent PAH concentrations can be

found in WVcam, from 0.58 to 151.72 ng g-1 (Table 4). While

wood vinegar is mainly used in agriculture as a partial

substitute for fertilizers and pesticides, contamination rates

must be considered since these substances may spread

throughout the surface soil and can potentially cause cancer

in humans. Some PAHs are lipophilic and are easily dissolved

and transported by human cell membranes (ROCHE et al.,

2002).

According to Canadian soil quality guidelines to protect

the environment and human health, the soil quality criteria

level for PAHs is 1000 ng g-1, which is higher than the

concentrations observed in WVcam. We also determined that

the WVcam had no potential carcinogenic risk, since the

seven carcinogenic compounds (benzo(a)anthracene,

chrysene, benzo(b)fluoranthene, benzo(k)fluoranthene,

benzo(a)pyrene, indeno(1.2.3-cd)anthracene, and

dibenzo(a,h)anthracene) (SCHOENY; POIRIER, 1993)

were not found.

Various factors in the production of wood vinegar such

as chemical composition of the biomass and temperature can

affect the yield and chemical composition, including the

PAHs formed. Thermal PAH formation can occur over a

wide range of temperatures; when they are low, the

compound distribution is governed by thermal stability and

more stable isomers are formed, while PAHs of higher

formation enthalpy can be generated at higher temperatures

(BAUMARD et al., 1999).

4.1. Effect of wood vinegar amendments on carbon

dioxide and methane emissions from soil

CO2 emissions initially increased, reaching maximum

concentration at 28 days. At 80 days of incubation CO2

emissions leveled off, indicating the stability of WVcam

biodegradation (Figure 2). WVcam did not negatively affect

the soil microbes responsible for soil mineralization, even

though it contains a large number of phenolic compounds

(Table 3) with antibacterial properties (LUCCHINI et al.,

1990; EVANS et al., 1999).

Cumulative concentrations of CO2 did not vary according

to soil type; at 120 days the samples treated with WVcam

emitted average values of 3281.5, 2653.3, and 3341.2 mg g-1

of CO2 in clayey, loamy and sandy soils, respectively, while

the control soil samples emitted 2,618.0, 1,465.7 and 4,816.0

mg g-1, respectively. The sandy soil treated with the WVcam

mixture had lower CO2 emissions than the control, possibly

because of the type of soil microbiota that was inhibited by

the wood vinegar. Soil microbes in the loamy and clayey soils

treated with the WVcam emitted more CO2, which was also

seen by another group of researchers investigating charcoal

and wood vinegar (STEINER et al., 2008). Previous studies

have reported that microorganisms and microbial activity

change in agricultural soils as a result of the organic content

in wood vinegar that is added, since these organic

compounds provide a source of carbon for microorganisms

in the soil (HANGER, 2013; LU et al., 2015).

The soils that were not treated with WVcam had no

detectable CH4 emissions. Similar results were observed in

moist soil cores incubated in the laboratory at 25 ºC in

Germany (KOSCHORRECK; CONRAD, 1993) and in Sri

Lanka incubated at 30ºC (SENEVIRATNE; VAN HOLM,

1998). The soils treated with the WVcam mixtures also did

not emit CH4, even though wood vinegar contains a

significant amount of acetic acid, which is a substrate for

methanogens (KYUMA, 2004). It is important to remember

that methane is 23 times more potent than carbon dioxide in

trapping heat in the atmosphere (Foster et al., 2007),

absorbing 15 to 40 times more radiation than CO2 (LENZI;

FAVERO, 2009).

4.2. Effect of amendments on nitrous oxide emissions

Soil texture, WVcam ratios, and incubation time affected

N2O emissions (Figure 2). In the sandy and loamy soil

samples, emissions fell as WVcam concentrations increased,

while they did not decrease in the clayey soil; the decrease

was most significant in the loamy soil, peaking at 49 days of

Wood vinegar: chemical characteristics, phytotoxic effects, and impacts on greenhouse gas emissions

Nativa, Sinop, v. 10, n. 3, p. 400-409, 2022.

406

incubation. The clayey soil stabilized at 80 days, while the

loamy soil continued to emit nitrous oxide. These differences

can be related to physical attributes of the soil such as

porosity and pore size distribution, and chemical and

biological attributes such as organic matter content and soil

microbiota activity (GAILLARD et al., 2016; SIGNOR;

CERRI, 2013).

Clayey soils have greater protection provided by

aggregates, which may explain the lesser effect of WVcam

application in different concentrations. Microporosity is

usually not significant in sandy soils, causing less of an effect

from the WVcam, while loamy soils tend to have a balanced

distribution of pores, which can significantly reduce N2O

emissions (GAILLARD et al., 2016; SKIBA; BALL, 2006).

WVcam inhibited N2O emissions in the clayey and loamy

soil samples at 1.25%, which could have resulted from the

organic C input and soil pH change; amendment with wood

vinegar could potentially encourage the activity of N2O

reductase from denitrifying microorganisms while inhibiting

the activity of reductases involved in the conversion of NO3

− to N2O (YANAI et al., 2007; RANATUNGA et al., 2018).

Indeed, changes in soil microbial community structure

and enzyme activity after the addition of wood vinegar have

been reported (Lu et al., 2015; Yang et al., 2016). Factors such

as soil microbe communities that contribute to reductions in

N2O in soils where wood vinegar is utilized, particularly

alongside nitrogen fertilization, require additional study.

The chemical properties of WVcam that alter the soil

environment (such as C source, pH, and microbial activity)

are directly related to greenhouse gas emissions from

agricultural soils (NIU et al., 2017). Understanding these

changes and the effects of soil texture on gas emissions can

help guide the proper use of wood vinegar in agriculture.

4.3. Phytotoxicity and cytotoxicity

The phenolic compounds are some of the most

important and common plant allelochemicals in the

terrestrial ecosystem (Li et al., 2010), the inhibition of seed

germination and root growth occurred due this exposition by

WV. In assessing cytotoxicity, mitotic index and

chromosomal alterations were used to verify changes in the

cell cycle. Table 5 presents the data for 0.5% concentrations

of WVcam and the control (water), since no germination

occurred at other concentrations. The mitotic index was

higher than the control, suggesting cellular proliferation

occurred. Meristematic tissues are susceptible to many biotic

and abiotic stressors, which makes it possible to test the

toxicity of some substances (MOLINA et al., 2006).

According to Souza et al. (2010), the mitotic index may

be lower when exposed to cytotoxic substances because these

may inhibit the cell cycle. However, cytotoxic potential can

vary according to concentration used. Our findings indicate

that 0.5% WVcam has no phytotoxic potential. Some

chromosomal abnormalities were observed; the predominant

abnormalities were bridges at anaphase and telophase, C-

metaphases, and unoriented chromosomes at metaphase

(Figure 4).

Table 6 shows the percentage of abnormal cells per phase

of mitosis. Aneugenic events are characterized by loss of

chromosomes resulting from the formation of c-metaphases

and loss or non-orientation of chromosomes, indicating that

the cell contains components that prevent microtubule

polymerization which impedes the formation of the mitotic

spindle. On the other hand, clastogenic events cause

chromosome breakage, forming bridges and chromosomal

adhesion. Breakage of chromosome segments may cause

inter- or intrachromatin fusion, generating irreversible forms

of adhesion or leading to cell death (CHIAVEGATTO et al.,

2017).

Chromosomal bridges can break in random regions,

generating telomere-free chromosomes that can be

transferred to the next generation and start the bridge-fusion-

break cycle. Increased condensation and nuclear

fragmentation are the first signs of apoptosis.

According to Lemme; Marin-Morales (2008) a complex

mixture of hydrocarbons may demonstrate clastogenic and

aneugenic activities or even induce cell death in Allium cepa

genetic material, due to the presence of PAHs. Wood vinegar

contains a variety of PAHs (Table 4), and may have a similar

effect in L. sativa. Despite the effects of PAHs on genetic

material, Nobrega et al. (2021) investigated the impact of

these substances on lettuce physiology and demonstrated

that the changes in physiological behavior as well as

morphology induced by these compounds are only

significant in high concentrations.

5. CONCLUSIONS

Wood vinegar has the potential to partially replace

chemical fertilizers and pesticides and serve as a co-solvent

for agrochemicals. The findings of chemical analysis indicate

that alongside its established uses in the chemical and

pharmaceutical industries. Also, WVcam can be used in soils

and alongside nitrogen fertilization, since it can prevent or

reduce N2O and CO2 emissions, particularly in clayey and

loamy soils.

WVcam presents no risk for environmental and vegetal

behavior in concentrations less than 0.5%, which was

confirmed by the fact that seeds germinated in this

concentration and the mitotic index did not decrease

compared to the control. Nevertheless, the chromosome

alterations detected suggest that WVcam must be diluted for

agricultural applications.

6. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This work was supported by the Mato Grosso

Foundation for Research Support (FAPEMAT), project

148211/2014. The soil samples were kindly provided by

Marcos da Silveira. Thanks also to Embrapa

Agrossilvipastoral librarian Aisten Baldan.

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